1 Research Methodology and a General Analysis of the Literature

Research methodology represents the tools and means to discover the rules and laws of the objects,and different methods often dictate the difference in preset values,perspectives and process of analysis,and even the final research results.This paper,based on the articles and data published on CNKI,which was jointly launched by Tsinghua University and Tsinghua Tongfang Holding Group in 1996,has made an analysis of the overall distribution,source journals,high-frequency keywords,subjects,supporting funds,levels of research and milestone events in this segment.

1.1 Research Methods and Previous Results

CNKI is the most comprehensive database in Chinese,with a complete coverage of papers carried in Chinese journals,doctoral dissertations,master degree theses,conference papers,yearbooks and newspapers.While this paper uses CNKI as the major source of data for the writings listed above,it omits such non-academic ones as invitations for paper contribution,notices for conferences and short reviews and the literature on engineering,basic sciences,agriculture,and medicine,which is not directly correlated to the purpose at hand.The author adopts the bibliometric methods provided in Citespace III and EXCEL,which are metric methods using mathematics and statistics for quantitative analysis of literature and can be used to reveal the features,influences and trends of literature on a certain subject.The objects of study in this paper are the research results,signature events and key ideas in the field of NTSS written in Chinese in the past 40 years from 1978 to 2017.The websites of the National Library of China and dangdang.com are used as a source of data for online treatises in Chinese.

However,it must be pointed out that as a comprehensive review that covers a wide span of time,this paper is hardly able to include all the references due to the limitations of the digital samples and of its own length.

Actually,there have been some oriented reviews or re-studies of NTSS in China by the academic community.Some studied the distribution and features of the existing literature[3],while some others tried to explore the concepts and development of non-traditional security and make comparisons with traditional security[4].Articles have also been written to discuss the main characteristics of non-traditional security issues[5],representative theoretical studies and major disputes in the field[6],as well as the evolution of government mentality on non-traditional security[7].Theoretical consensus,comparisons with NTSS overseas[8],theoretical bottlenecks and future trends[9]have all been abstracted and analyzed.

However,these previous results are insufficient in both extensiveness and depth.For example,none of them conducted any thorough or in-depth analysis of the entire literature from 1978 to 2017 or made any elaborate inspections of the development trajectory and the laws inherent in the research in the past 40 years; and none of them dealt with the driving factors in its evolution,its significance for academic and policy-making purposes,or presented a scenario for future studies.

1.2 An Overall Bibliometric Analysis

1.2.1 The Distribution and Trend of the Literature

The author of this paper searched on CNKI from 8 sources,including journals,master theses,doctoral dissertations,collections of academic papers,collections of papers published by universities,proceedings of domestic conferences,proceedings of international conferences,and newspapers,and got the figures of journal articles,theses and dissertations titled under or with the theme/subject of “non-traditional security”.Between 1978 and 2017,altogether 726 papers were “titled” under and 2,522 papers dealt “with the subject” of “non-traditional security”,and the figures of journal articles of these two types added up to 499 and 1,573 respectively.Master theses and doctoral dissertations titled and themed as such amounted to 632.Figure 1 may be referred to for the annual distribution of the articles.As to the number of papers related to this subject,it was not until 1998 that research results either with the subject of or titled with “non-traditional security” were recorded and developed into a bibliographic database; the period from 1998 to 2006 saw a rapid growth in the size of the literature,while a somewhat milder but steady increase was registered between 2006 and 2010,and another peak emerged in the research around 2015.

Figure 1 The number of papers either with the subject of “non-traditional security” or contain in this phrase in their titles as well as master theses and doctoral dissertations from 1978 to 2017

Source of data: The author made this diagram according to the search results of CNKI on April 1, 2018.The search itself covers the span from Jan 1, 1978 to Dec 31, 2017.

1.2.2 Source Journals and High-Frequency Keywords

High-frequency keywords usually constitute the focus of attention within a certain period among scholars and reflect the hot spots in research,while source journals reveal the distribution of studies within a certain discipline.The top 10 journals in terms of the number of published articles themed as NTSS,the high-frequency keywords in papers that deal with the subject of NTSS,as well as the interactive network of keywords are illustrated respectively in Figures 2,3 and 4.

It is worth pointing out that up to 2017,the Journal of International Security Studies (《国际安全研究》) has published 59 papers relevant to non-traditional security since its change of name in 2013,registering an annual average of 12; the high-frequency keywords in articles that discuss the subject of “non-traditional security” are non-traditional security,state security,China,and new security concept,among others.A comparison of Figures 3 and 4 shows that issues centered around non-traditional security—state security,new security concept,globalization,border security,security cooperation,security governance,and regional security—have claimed more attention from scholars.

Figure 2 The top 10 journals that published papers between 1978 and 2017 with the subject of “non-traditional security” and the number of relevant papers carried in them

Figure 3 The top 10 high-frequency keywords in papers with the subject of “non-traditional security” published between 1978 and 2017

1.2.3 An Analysis of the Discipline,Funds and Level of Research

Statistics from CNKI shows that “non-traditional security” account for 45.7% of the top 10 high-frequency keywords; as for disciplinary distribution,45.7% of the papers have to do with Politics (the discipline of Chinese and International Politics); in terms of funding,the National Social Science Fund of China supported 78% of all relevant papers and projects; and in terms of research level,papers of basic studies constitute 66.6% of all results.The annual distributions of discipline,funds and levels of research are all clearly illustrated in Figure 5,which corresponds in general with Figure 1.

Figure 4 Interactive network of the keywords

Figure 5 Distribution of discipline, funding and levels of research

1.2.4 Landmark “Events”

This paper has also included the landmark “academic events” (academic achievements or activities) and the important events in government policy-making,or policy events ­—the important cases of the application of “non-traditional security” in government reports (Refer to Table 1).

Table 1 The Landmark Events in NTSS in China (1978-2017)

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1.3 The Path of Diachronic Evolution

Non-traditional security as a phenomenon has existed since time immemorial,and cases that have been recorded include the floods during the lifetime of Yu the Great,and earthquakes,fires and plagues during the dynasties of Xia,Shang,and Zhou.There was also thinking about non-traditional security in ancient China.For example,Confucius believed that people should fish without using a net,and should not aim their arrows at roosting birds; Xunzi advocated that when trees are growing,people should not axe them down for wood.Ancient Chinese even had laws to regulate acts against non-traditional security threats.For instance,the Law on Lumbering (《伐崇令》)in the West Zhou Dynasty (西周) decreed that houses should not be demolished,wells not filled up with dirt,trees not felled,and livestock should not be killed; those who violate the law shall be sentenced to death penalty.An article Respect Farming in the ancient Chinese literature Lü’s Commentaries of History (《吕氏春秋·上农》) suggested that different acts should be banned in different seasons to ensure a good harvest.The Law on Farmlands (《田律》) promulgated by the Qin Dynasty (秦) also prescribed that during the second lunar month in a year no trees should be cut and no rivers or lakes should be blocked for anyone’s own good.All these serve to show that ancient China already had ideas and rules to protect lakes,farmlands,animals and forests and to guard against threats of floods,earthquakes,pests,and epidemics.In other words,China has developed and practiced thoughts of non-traditional security since ancient times to protect the ecology and resources,rescue disasters and prevent diseases.

However,this paper will focus the analysis on the contemporary exploration of non-traditional security theories in China since 1978.Following the same approach whereby the Western academia studied the “non-military issues” in the field of security studies since WWII,the author holds that contemporary NTSS in China since 1978 may be divided into 4 stages (See Table 2).

Table 2 Four Stages in NTSS in China (1978-2017)

Stage 1: Gestation & Genesis (1978-1993),covers the period from the beginning of the reforms and opening-up to 1994,when the academic community in China for the first time applied unambiguously the term of “non-traditional security”.During this stage,the international community witnessed the strong antagonism between the US and the former Soviet Union and the disintegration of the latter.And amid the substantial change of the security situation,the international community became increasingly concerned with such non-warfare and non-military issues as ecological destruction,poverty,diseases,religious conflicts,accidents and disasters[10].Under the influence of the general shift of the global security situation,China’s top leadership replaced the old orientation featured by “war vs.peace” with a new one cored around “peace and development”,and adopted the development strategies that prioritize “economic construction” rather than emphasize “class struggle”.Correspondingly,the goal of national security was also changed from striving to survive to the pursuit of affluence,and reforms at home and opening-up to the outside world became the paramount tasks.

The Chinese government work reports,though scattered with “safety of women and children”,“property safety” and some other forms of low politics security,was at the time dominated by the theme of “security of the motherland” and “the national security”[11].The concept of “non-traditional security” was unheard of,and there were no theoretical studies on the segment of course,let alone any “outlook on non-traditional security”; and criticisms over or challenges to the “traditional security” outlook from the perspective of “non-traditional security” were to come onto the scene later.But a “new” or “more important” idea of security began to take form when “new problems” different from traditional military matters were tackled.This new idea increasingly highlighted the close correlations between non-sovereign or non-military issues —productivity,resources,ecological environment,women—and the growth and prosperity of a country,and maintained that “more attention” should be given to these issues[12].Discussions of topics like “economic security”,“food security”,“environmental security”,and “social security” also began to emerge.But,clearly different from and independent of the concept of “state security” at the time,these ideas were excluded from the framework of national security and were not accepted as “national agenda”[13].

Stage 2: Conceptualization & Awareness-Building,spans over the period between 1994 when the discourse of “non-traditional security” first appeared in China’s academia and 2004,which witnessed the “collective reflections”.During this time,the strong impacts of the Soviet disintegration on the global security domain,and a series of emergencies[14] prompted a rapid growth of NTSS in China.In this stage,85 articles were written and published,62 of which were core results of basic or policy studies (See Table 2).Major characteristics of NTSS at this stage are as follows.

Scholars actively elaborated on and tried to standardize the idea of non-traditional security,and urged relevant government departments to pay more attention to the elements of non-traditional security in segments of national security,country growth and diplomatic affairs.Under this background,NTSS began to turn,from the initial burgeoning stage to “passionate” reasoning.

In 1994,Wang Yong of Peking University used the official term of “non-traditional security” for the first time in China in a paper he wrote for the World Economics & Politics[15].Following the publication of the paper came the reasoning why studies in this field were important[16],and then the first paper on the subject and the first one that contains the phrase of non-traditional security.The first compiled book on this subject was also published soon and the first nationwide seminar was held (See Table 1).

In these articles,books and seminars,the definition of non-traditional security,the backgrounds for the birth of this term,its denotations and connotations,categories/genres,features,and its relationship and interchanges with traditional security,etc.were discussed extensively[17].

During this stage,also for the first time in China,important issues including China’s security environment[18],disputes with neighboring countries[19],peaceful rise and diplomatic strategies[20],the turns in security governance[21] were all approached from the perspective of non-traditional security.In addition,proposals were made to establish the system of “comprehensive security”,which covers the areas of both traditional and non-traditional security[22] as well as the “new security concept” that stresses cooperation and dialogue[23].In 1998,the journal of World Economics & Politics listed “non-traditional security” as one of its top 10 subjects of the year.

The Chinese government officially identified the contents of the “new concept of security” in 1999,and used the expression of “non-traditional security” in public for the first time in 2000.In 2002,the government managed to reach cross-border cooperation in non-traditional security governance for the first time in history and enumerated specific issues in this aspect.In the same year,the report on the 16th National Congress of the CPC recognized clearly for the first time the factors of non-traditional security threats and believed that “traditional and non-traditional security threats are intertwined”.Also during this stage,the term “non-traditional security” was used for the first time in government document to represent terrorism,drug-trafficking,cross-border crimes,resource shortage,and ecological degradation (See Table 1).Generally speaking,policy-makers gradually came to recognize the elements and supporting system of non-traditional security and reached an initial consensus on its importance[24].However,it is worth pointing out that non-traditional security was still “supplementary” and “marginalized” within the framework of national security.

Stage 3: Self-Reflection & Clarification (2004-2013),starts from the collective reflections in 2004 and ends in 2014 before the term “shared security” was set forth.Affected by the outbreak of SARS,the earthquake in Wenchuan,the July 5 Incident in Xinjiang and other security problems including the tsunami in Indonesia,terrorist attacks in Europe and information leakages,countries in the world began to re-evaluate issues concerning the concept,institution and resources of security.In line with this trend,China witnessed an explosive increase in NTSS,with 1,545 papers published within a decade,1,312 of these were results of basic research or policy research,and 66 of them were supported by national funds (See Table 2).

The contents of the papers are mainly involved with reflections and applications of theories instead of demanding attention as in the second stage.

First,they made comprehensive reflections on the dilemmas in the actual application of the discourse of non-traditional security[25] and tried to review and understand the status,development,and boundaries of non-traditional security in a systematic and critical manner.They also compared different views and tried to put into perspective its relationship with traditional security[26].

Second,they made a list of the questions concerning non-traditional security in China and explored the tackling strategies[27].During this period,some original and ground-breaking proposals were put forward in relation to the complexities of both domestic and global issues of non-traditional security.For example,the expressions of “security governance” and “security China” initiated by Yu Xiaofeng[28],and that of “sustainable security” proposed by Liu Jiangyong[29].Some scholars traced traditional Chinese culture for diametrically different security conceptions from the West.Yu Xiaofeng set forth a new philosophy of security known as “superior coexistence” and “peace-cooperationism” based on the notion of great harmony in an ancient Chinese classic,the Book of Changes[30].Wang Yizhou’s notion of “creative intervention”[31],Yan Xuetong’s “ethical realism”[32],Jin Yingzhong’s idea of “international symbiosis”[33],and Qin Yaqing’s “relationship governance”[34] were all developed around this time.

Third,scholars focused the discussion on a number of regional and monographic issues of non-traditional security,i.e.food,cultural,social,and industrial security.

Fourth,scholars introduced and drew upon the Western concept of non-security,schools,methods and theoretical framework [35]as well as NTSS within the theories of international relations in the West[36] and representative works[37].

Fifth,Yu Xiaofeng initiated the compilation of the first textbook on non-traditional security,spreading in a systematic way to the public the fundamental principles,important topics and strategies of non-traditional security[38].

In practice,documents of the Central Committee of the CPC repeatedly called for “effective coping with traditional and non-traditional security threats”; in 2012,the report on the 18th National Congress of the CPC reiterated that the security situation in China is featured by “intertwined traditional and non-traditional security threats”; in 2013,the Communique of the Third Plenary Session of the 18th CPC Central Committee stated that the Council of State Security would be established and the regime and strategy of state security would be strengthened (See Table 1).

In summary,the perspective of non-traditional security centered on “non-military topics” and “non-confrontational mentality” became more independent in the decision-making process of the country[39].

Stage 4: Construction & Growth (2014-2017),extends from the time when “shared security” was first proposed as the pillar of the “China Vision” to 2017.After the Third Plenum of the 18th CPC Central Committee,the Chinese government started to vigorously promote the institution of national security governance[40] while pushing for the building of a new type of international relations and the community of shared future for mankind.The report on the 19th National Congress of the CPC emphasized the coordination between traditional and non-traditional security.

In the meantime,the circle of NTSS in China set out to build their own school of thought and expand the topics of study.Great enthusiasm was witnessed not only in the explanation and analysis of the “overall national security concept”,but also in the studies of national security in terms of denotation,connotation,discipline-building,strategy,and capability; “Top 10 Events of National Security” was released annually[41]; and studies that centered on the overall national security deepened,with annual reports,textbooks being published in impressive numbers and NTSS coming to be better recognized.(See Table 1)

In line with the increasing passion in issues concerning the “Belt & Road” initiatives,the “community of shared future for mankind”,and China’s participation in global governance,the security outlook was also enriched.The “China Vision” was advanced together with “shared security”,“community of shared non-traditional security”[42],and “community of shared future[43]”.“Security embeddedness[44]”,“field security”[45] and other terms were also proposed to provide different perspectives for the interpretation of different issues.

During this period,the idea of a China School,which represents the discourse and position of China,was also raised and discussed[46].Up to this moment,a clear awareness of the “China Approach” or the “China Paradigm” was formed in NTSS in the academia and found expression in its genre/category,discipline-construction,and methodology as well in the decision-making process.

During the past 40 years,NTSS in China has taken a critical turn in scholarship.At the time when the policy of reform and opening-up was first introduced,scholars only approached issues different from those of “traditional security” with an indistinct cognizance of security that was “non-traditional”.With the development of theories and research,they have grown out of the passive responses to phenomena of security and become motivated in reflections and more forward-thinking in the study of the reality.In the process of topic identification and theoretical construction,they began to reflect on the root cause and probe into the rules and laws,and their results also changed from technical analysis of individual and specific events to be general,inclusive and strategic.And as NTSS gradually attracted the attention of the leadership and more research results were applied in the policy-making process,to a certain extent,the attitudes of the top also set the direction of research in non-traditional security.

In government policy-making,the non-traditional security elements were simply invisible at first,and then they were given marginal attention,and eventually priority.From 1978 to the early 1990s,food,water,and the environment were all considered to be “non-military” issues beyond the scope of “national security” and thus “neglected”.From the mid-1990s to the beginning of the 21st century,the term “non-traditional security” started to appear in a few top-level documents and on some diplomatic occasions,but “non-traditional security” was generally positioned in the margins of national strategies,having no substantial influence on the overall security arrangement.From 2012 to 2018,especially after the Third Plenum of the 18th CPC Central Committee,the expression “non-traditional security” and relevant ideas gradually increased in number in CPC and government documents,signifying that non-traditional security has grown in importance and eventually become a factor at the core of the national (security) strategy.

The Report on the 16th National Congress of the CPC claimed that “traditional and non-traditional security are intertwined”,and the 19th party congress report declared that “traditional and non-traditional security should be coordinated” while “adhering to the overall national security outlook”.Non-traditional security,up to this point,is put on equal footing with traditional security within the national security framework.The evolution of NTSS in the past 40 years is also mapped onto the adjustments in domestic and foreign policies,mainstream discourse,resources allocation and the restructuring of government functions[47].